The Mobile Secretariats in Mid-Qing China: Artistic Production and Literati Collectivism, ca. 1790-1840

Abstract

This dissertation explores literati art and culture in Qing China (1644-1911) during the fifty years preceding the Opium Wars. Challenging the traditional view of this era as one of “decline,” characterized by dwindling imperial court sponsorship and artistic output, I argue it was a period of vibrant cultural resurgence marked by elite collectivism. Scholars and literati artists enjoyed greater freedom than in previous centuries to actively participate in various local cultural initiatives across the country by forming groups and coteries. Central to fostering this trend was the institution known as mufu (lit. secretariat), an informal system thriving during this period and beyond, allowing provincial officials to recruit temporary advisers, including artists, from local society. With the support of each mufu host, a heterogeneous collection of artists of different geographical origins, cultural backgrounds, and specialties came together in the spirit of mutual support, recognition, and collaboration. Meanwhile, the ad hoc nature of their employment relationships necessitated a constant search for new opportunities, leading to frequent travels, meetings, and dispersals, thereby creating an ever-evolving, fluid network that united these scattered literati art circles across different regions. Drawing evidence from surviving architectural remains, provincial and municipal museum collections, as well as extraofficial written records, I argue that the decentralized nature of the mufu system not only revitalized the elite art world but also ensured its resilience during China’s transition from an imperial dynasty to a modern nation-state, departing from its previous reliance on a highly centralized cultural order. Within the mufu system, scholars and literati artists gained the autonomy to initiate various artistic projects and programs of unparalleled magnitude and influence, often equaling or even surpassing those backed by the contemporaneous Qing government. Their collaborative endeavors aimed at transcending the confines of imperially sanctioned paradigms, including elevating the status of artisanal skills, fostering cross-media dialogues between different art forms, nurturing the emergence of regionally distinctive artistic expressions, and embracing Western art and technology without compromising, but rather perpetuating and promoting China’s rich cultural heritage. These innovative practices embodied a dynamic, forward-thinking ethos, foreshadowing the eventual establishment of modern art institutions in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.